North American Series: Part 3.3

Northwest Coast: Totem Poles

In the first post I wrote of this series I talked about stereotypes. These stereotypes make broad generalizations of American Indians and totem poles are one of these stereotypes. Well we have reached the culture area that actually builds and utilizes these totem poles, the Northwest Coast.

Totem poles weren’t just created suddenly and they were not commissioned by just anyone. The chiefs commissioned by just anyone. The chiefs commissioned them by hiring a craftsman to create the poled from cedar using stone, bone, antler bladed or other axes. Another misconception of the poled is that they are simply an expression of region or deities. In fact the totem poles were more like a coat of arms type symbol (Rochete 2010).

The totem poles were also symbols of rank and mostly made by nobility. Whoever commissioned the pole was thought to be honorable and prestigious. The images on the poles were symbols of animals or spirits that were specific to the family or clan. They also depict stories of the family’s history, rank, good deeds, origins, memorials and other important events (Rochete 2010).

The poles were always treated with respect since they were supposed to connect the humans and the supernatural. Many totem poles even represent this relationship in their carvings. On the poles the top figure is supposed to be higher in rank and superior to the others (Rochete 2010).

Totem poles come in various forms. They could be entrances to the towns and villages, become interior posts for houses or also used as grave markers. Interior poled were supposed to show the clan who owned the house and we much shorter since they held support beams. Sometimes the chief’s room would be flanked with carves posts to show his importance (Rochete 2010).

Mortuary Poles were also used to show rank. Upon the death of a high ranking individual, a box of their remains was placed at the base of the newly built pole which depicted their totemic ancestors. There were also memorial poles which were similar, but they were placed in front of the house of the deceased (Rochete 2010).

There were also poles that weren’t meant for honoring people. There were poles also built for shame and ridicule if someone had committed on offense. The only way that the pole would then be taken down would be if the individual corrected the offense (Rochete 2010).

References

Rochete, Eric

2010. Anth 146 Lecture for November 8, 2010.

The Pennsylvania State University.

Photo Courtesy of nativeamericanencyclopedia.com

North American Series: Part 3.2

Northwest Coast: Religion and Beliefs

Since the Northwest is so expansive and extends through many different area up and down and coast, there are many different tribes and languages that are spoken (like I mentioned in the first post about the region). Just like the languages, there were many different religious practices as well. Most believed in common themes but the ceremonies and rituals were different. For example, in the north, ceremonies were more power and prestige driven than religious. Religion itself was thought to be a very informal and private. On the other side of the spectrum was the south where they had very structured and formal ceremonies that were based heavily on religion (Rochete 2010).

However, common themes ran through all of the tribes and regions of this area. The main beliefs centered on “primordial beings” that were certain animals that had very human characteristics and personalities. Some believed that these beings would sometimes take off their animals masks and became human, integrating into society while other beings remained in their animal form (Rochete 2010).

The most important, all up and down the coast, of these beings was the trickster effigy of the Raven (pictured above). Many stories are told of his acts; the most popular when he stole the sun and brought it to earth. The Raven is also a major fixture in most creation myths, especially the one of the Haida people. The way the myth goes is the Raven came upon a barren beach where he found a half opened clamshell. He looked inside the shell to find tiny people peaking out of it and bade them to come out. Those tiny people then became the first of the Haida (Rochete 2010).

The Northwest Coast Indians had similar ideas to the southwestern wakan when it came to nature. They believed that everything in nature was filled with spirit power that could be either good or bad for the people. Most tribes prayed daily to the different aspects of nature such as whales, fish, cold waters, Raven, wind, sun, vegetation, stones, etc. All these different spirits were invoked based on what the desired result was for the day. Anytime any exchange was to occur between humans and animals, they would pray for it. It was thought that if they received prayers, the animals would voluntarily give themselves to men (Rochete 2010).

Another prominent belief was in reincarnation. The reincarnation of the salmon was a big part of the cultures and they spent a great deal of time to ensure that the fish were properly reincarnated. When captured, the salmon were spoke to as if they were a guest of a high rank, and were given welcome speeches before they were killed and cleaned. Everyone then partook in eating the fish and the salmon bones were returned to the river so that the fish would return the following year. Many different animals went through this same ritual process before, during, and after being eaten (Rochete 2010).

Since this area both believed that everything had souls and that animals also had human characteristics, this lead to the belief that human souls were associated with owls. It was thought (heavily among the Tlingit) that while a person was sleeping, their soul inhabited an owl that was soaring around the forest. They believed that if the body was without a soul for too long that the person would die. In fact soul loss was thought to be among the most frequent causes of serious ailments (Rochete 2010).

If someone ended up dying from soul loss (or the other popular cause which was a foreign object placed in the body by an evil spirit) there were certain procedures that had to be done to ensure safe travel to the spirit world. First, once enough time had passed the body would be cremated (this was believed to keep the person warm) and then the left over bones and ashes were place into a wooden box. Afterwords, the deceased’s spirit was called back to the village through several rituals including a holy man putting on a mask said to represent the deceased and visiting every house in the village dancing in silence. Since they believed in reincarnation, they believed that the dead were reborn as their descendants. When babies were born and looked like their dead relatives they were said to be the actual reincarnation of that relative (Rochete 2010).

Just like the people of the Southwest, the Northwest Coast also used masks for their rituals, especially their dances. When the dancers and shamans wore the masks they were embodying the creatures, deities, and forces that were evoked during rituals. Among the Kwakiutl, masks were very important during storytelling. The masks that they used for storytelling were unique and passed down the generations. The person that wore the mask then could represent their own interpretation of both the story and the mask (Rochete 2010).

Another large aspect of the Northwest Coast beliefs was the use of healers or shamans. Shamans could perform an array of healing rituals and ceremonies such as bringing souls back or removing contaminations from those inflicted by evil spirits. Unlike other cultures, both men and women could be shamans as long as they had overcome a major sickness. It was said that when someone got sick that it was the spirit world calling them. During the sickness they would be taught by the spirits how to become shaman along with receiving sacred songs that could cure their own sickness. If someone then survived their sickness they were thought to have gotten the proper training and healed themselves so therefore they could heal others as well (Rochete 2010).

There were a lot of items that the shamans needed to perform these ritual healings including masks, bones, rattles, stones, and parts of animals. Many shamans gained great wealth from healing and charging fees for their services. This did not mean that they had a high status associated with the shamanic powers (Rochete 2010).

References

Rochete, Eric

2010. Anth 146 Lecture for November 8, 2010.

The Pennsylvania State University.

Photo courtesy of shortstreet.net

North American Series: Part 3.1

Northwest Coast: Environment and Subsistence

So now we’re going to move up north to the next culture area, the Northwest Coastal region. This regions starts at Northern California and extends a 1,400 mile stretch up through Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and the southern part of Alaska. Across this region there are 28 major groups of language, among which the most well known are the Athabaskan, Panutian, Salishan and Wakashan speakers. All these inhabitants are for the most part sedentary so they are concentrated on the landscape (Rochete 2010).

Unlike the Southwest and the Southeast culture areas that we have talked about already who are mostly farmers, the Northwest Coast are hunters and gatherers. This is due to the highly sedentary lifestyle and the environment of this area (Rochete 2010).

The environment of the Northwest Coast is very different from any of the other culture areas since it is affected by the warm water and air coming from Southern Asia. The constant chain of mountains just east of the coast becomes a barrier which causes the moist warm air from Japan to immediately hit the mountains as soon as it hits the coast. The air then becomes void of almost all of the moisture here at this strip of land between the sea and the mountains. This then causes an extremely moist and foggy environment which sees above 100 inches of rain per year, as well as relatively moderate temperatures (Rochete 2010).

This environment then makes it possible for lush forests and even some temperate rainforests to thrive. The vegetation includes fir, pine and cedar forests. The environment yields freshwater rivers which are great for salmon spawning. Part of the hunter and gatherer lifestyle then for this area is to prepare all year for the salmon spawning. As soon as the fish start to move up the rivers weirs are set up. Weirs are great lattices or stone works that extend across the river width to trap the fish (pictured above). Then the fishermen wait with nets and harpoons to catch the fish (Rochete 2010).

Other than salmon there were other resources both in the river and in the sea. Eulachon, a very oily fish, was very useful since they could extract the oil and save it to use for cooking. Cod, herring, smelt and trout were also important fish that were caught using weirs. Halibut were also caught but using large hooks. Sea mammals such as seals, sea lions, porpoises and whales were also important for the meat and the blubber which was essential to survival in the area. Seaweed, clams and other shellfish which were dug out from the coastline were also very important to the diet (Rochete 2010).

Like some of the other culture areas land mammals was also a part of the diet. Due to the abundance of sea life, land mammals aren’t as important in the diet but still were utilized. Deer, mountain goats are hunted as well as bear. Hides of these animals are important in the northern regions since it is colder (Rochete 2010).

Birds are also eaten as well as berries and roots that are grown in the forests. Farming in very scare in this area and in fact the only crop that is really grown at all is tobacco (Rochete 2010). It is very easy to see though that because of the environment and resources, agriculture isn’t needed which sets this area apart from much of North America.

References

Rochete, Eric

2010. Anth 146 Lecture for November 8, 2010.

The Pennsylvania State University.

Picture courtesy of naish.50megs.com

Is there Such thing as a Pristine Environment and Landscape?

Okay switching gears a little bit here to talk more about what is going on in the world. So as most of you know there was a massive earthquake in Japan that has sent the northern part of Japan into destruction. This earthquake then has spurred Tsunamis throughout the pacific affecting Hawaii and the West Coast. Now this is just part of a long list of natural disasters that have happened in the last decade around the world and it is very tragic.

These natural disasters have though spurred religious groups around the world to claim that the “end of days” are coming, whatever that may mean to each religion. Also there have already been claims that this earthquake has been inflicted on Japan as a sort of “judgment.” All of this is so sickening to hear about. Instead of dealing with all of these arguments we should be praying and trying to help out those affected. That being said I just have a few things to point out and then I’ll leave it at that.

So per usual I am looking at these claims from and anthropological perspective. A lot of people have this idea that the earth and climate and environments were pristine before modern days where we came in and overpopulated and ruined it. This is not in fact the case. The environment has been a mess for years and yes I believe that pollution, overpopulation and other human factors are spurring these “hiccups” in the world as I call them, but they do not alone cause all these disasters.

In fact if you look at the epochs before ours (which we are in the Holocene) you can actually see that our environment is pretty damn stable compared to parts of the Pleistocene, Miocene and others. These natural disasters aren’t anything new. The only difference is that the world has grown to an enormous population way greater than the other epochs, so obviously there are more people to feel these disasters.

So back to this notion of the world being one pristine. It is all myth propagated by images in movies, books in the media. Like I mentioned in my first post on the Native American Series, many people have this image of the Happy Indian, communing with nature and mother earth who is a smiling sun. This is far from true. Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Tornados, Hurricanes, Volcanoes and pretty much every other natural disaster have been happening for millions of years. The difference? There weren’t these great cities and populations to be destroyed by them. Yes populations were wiped out from these “hiccups” but it wasn’t as highly publicized as it is now.

So that’s where I leave you, won’t go into too much detail at this time about the different large scales disasters for I don’t want to diminish anymore the earthquake and Tsunamis that are going on at the present time. At this moment we shouldn’t try to compare the disaster to others from other time for we should focus on this one in isolation and deal with the repercussions. There are already people who are trying to relate it to Hurricane Katrina and others which is going down an slippery slope.

My point in this post then becomes just to educate people on the past and that these disasters happen and they’ve been happening for millions of years. We should not be quick to jump on the “end of days” or any other similar bandwagons. That being said, there is something that you can do to help the victims of these disasters. You can donate to the RedCross by texting RED CROSS to 90999 and $10 will be donated to relief efforts.

Chart Courtsey of onlineopinion.com.au

North American Series: Part 2.3

Southwest: The Kachina Cult

Once again we will visit the spiritualism of the Pueblo but we will now focus more on the religious societies or cults of the Pueblos. The main focus of this will be on the Kachina Cult and its place in the Pueblo society. I mentioned the kachina monster in the last post which is a cautionary tale told to children to basically scare them. The kachina actually is many different things good and evil just like the wakan that were also mentioned in the last post.

Kachina actually means “father of life’ and are supernatural beings that possessed the many powers like the power to give abundant harvests. Kachinas were also known as the “cloud people” who live half of the year in the world below and half on earth in accordance to the Winter and Summer Solstices. The kachinas were thought to have visited in person long ago and that in current times possess impersonators. These impersonators were believed to become the actual spirits once they put on the costumes and masks. In fact the masks themselves were to be treated with the utmost respect or the dancers would be killed. Theses masks were considered living entities and were even fed with corn (Rochete 2010).

Most children believed the dancers were actually the spirits themselves so when they reached the age of around eight or nine they were initiated into the Kachina Cult. It was at this point that it was revealed to the children that their ancestors were kachinas but they were sworn to secrecy about it. This whole process was supposed to give the children a higher understanding so that they wouldn’t reject the beliefs (Rochete 2010).

During their annual ceremonies men roamed the pueblos dressed up like various kachina spirits. Only the men in the societies were allowed to dress up as the kachinas and it wasn’t until puberty until they could enter into the secret societies that impersonated the kachinas. In this society they were all about the society’s past and the power of nature as well the job of the kachina which was to entertain and discipline the crowds (Rochete 2010).

There were over 300 types of kachinas that made appearances during the annual rituals. There are even 200 more of them that make even more sporadic appearances. This system though was not the same for each village since many were added and dropped by each individual pueblo. The kachinas had their own personalities and qualities and even had their own associated masks, colors and markings. For example there was the kachina named kwahu who was an eagle kachina who had a beaked face and feathers on his arms (pictured above). Kwahu was a fixture in Febuary during the Powamu ceremony which was a Hopi ceremony to promote crop fertility. The Powamu was also known as the bean dance for the dancers prepared the ground by sprouting beans in soil that they took from the kivas (Rochete 2010).

Kachina dolls made out of word and painted by men were very popular and were given to children. What is important to realize though is that these were not toys but used to teach children about the kachinas, beliefs and values. They represented the sacred so they were said to hold tremendous power. Now a days you can buy kachina dolls on reservations since most reservations want to increase revenue. It was thought though back in the day that if the kachina doll was sold that the power of the kachina was diluted (Rochete 2010).

References

Rochete, Eric

2010. Anth 146 Lecture for October 14, 2010.

The Pennsylvania State University.

Picture Courtesy of carolebourdo.com